Deyako of the Medes

Description

The provided text critically reassesses the historical figure of Deioces, traditionally presented by Herodotus as the founder and first king of the Median Empire. It highlights a significant discrepancy between Herodotus's idealized narrative, which depicts Deioces as a wise judge who united the Medes and built the magnificent capital of Ecbatana, and contemporary Neo-Assyrian cuneiform records. These Assyrian sources describe a minor provincial governor named Daiukku, who, despite a similar name, was a Mannaean vassal, active in a different region, and suffered a defeat and exile, utterly contradicting Herodotus's account of Deioces's powerful reign and peaceful death. Furthermore, archaeological evidence for a grand Median capital like Ecbatana during Deioces's supposed era is notably absent, instead revealing a politically fragmented region of smaller, fortified settlements, aligning with the Assyrian descriptions. The research concludes that Deioces is likely a composite, legendary figure, created by later traditions to provide a prestigious origin story for the Median state, with the true process of Median unification being a protracted response to Assyrian imperial pressure rather than the work of a single individual.

Sources

• .4 Deioces. (1911). In Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Wikisource.
• .8 Deioces. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .9 Deioces. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .6 Schmitt, R. (2013, October 29). DEIOCES. In Encyclopædia Iranica.
• .1 Histories (Herodotus). (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .36 Luckenbill, D. D. (Ed.). (1926). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, Volume 1: Historical Records of Assyria From the Earliest Times to Sargon. University of Chicago Press.
• .37 Forerunners of the Achaemenids: The First Half of the First Millennium BCE. (n.d.). Cambridge University Press.
• .38 Timeline of the Medes. (n.d.). World History Encyclopedia.
• .39 Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Volume 1: Historical Records of Assyria From the Earliest Times to Sargon. (n.d.). Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures.
• .18 Medes. (n.d.). In Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .28 Deioces Name Meaning. (n.d.). Ancestry.com.
• .25 Δηϊόκης. (n.d.). In Wiktionary. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .40 Hunter, M. (2012, November 11). Deiokes or Deioces of Medea. Amazing Bible Timeline with World History.
• .41 Deioces: Name Meaning, Popularity and Info. (n.d.). BabyNames.com.
• .42 How to Pronounce Deioces. (n.d.). YouTube. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .2 Herodotus: Histories Book I. (2022). Cambridge University Press.
• .5 Herodotus. (n.d.). The Histories, Book I. Project Gutenberg.
• .3 Herodotus. (2015). The Histories (T. Holland, Trans.). Penguin Random House.
• .43 Herodotus. (n.d.). The Histories, Book I. University of Chicago.
• .13 Herodotus. (n.d.). The Histories, Vol. I. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .44 Frame, G. (n.d.). A “NEW” CYLINDER INSCRIPTION OF SARGON II OF ASSYRIA FROM MELID. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .45 Mesopotamian King Sargon II envisioned ancient city Karkemish as western Assyrian capital. (2019, April 19). Ancient Origins.
• .46 Sargon II Inscription. (n.d.). Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .23 Sargon II: An Archaeological Biography. (2024, February 22). The Bible Archaeology Report.
• .21 Frame, G. (2021). The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). Eisenbrauns.
• .22 The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). (n.d.). DOKUMEN.PUB.
• .47 Encyclopædia Iranica. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .48 Encyclopaedia Iranica. (n.d.). National Endowment for the Humanities.
• .49 The Encyclopaedia Iranica. (n.d.). Columbia University, Center for Iranian Studies.
• .50 About Iranica. (n.d.). Encyclopædia Iranica.
• .51 Iranian History (1) Pre-Islamic Times. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Iranica.
• .52 Decius. (n.d.). Livius.org.
• .53 Decius. (n.d.). Livius.org.
• .54 Deioces. (n.d.). ToposText.
• .55 Livius.org. (n.d.).
• .56 Alexander's successors: the Diadochi. (n.d.). Livius.org.
• .30 Babadi, A. (2024). Deioces and the Ideal King in the Zoroastrian Religion. Journal of Iranian Studies, 23(46), 61-80.
• .57 Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .58 Newman, M. (n.d.). The Catholic diocese of Lafayette and desegregation, 1947-1972. Louisiana History, 64(2), 121-176.
• .59 Beck, H. G. J. (1959). The Selection of Bishops Suffragan to Hincmar of Rheims, 845-882. The Catholic Historical Review, 45(3).
• .8 Deioces. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .9 Deioces. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .6 Schmitt, R. (2013, October 29). DEIOCES. In Encyclopædia Iranica.
• .49 The Encyclopaedia Iranica. (n.d.). Columbia University, Center for Iranian Studies.
• .47 Encyclopædia Iranica. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .60 Encyclopedia Iranica: A free online encyclopedia... (n.d.). Reddit.
• .36 Luckenbill, D. D. (Ed.). (1926). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, Volume 1: Historical Records of Assyria From the Earliest Times to Sargon. University of Chicago Press.
• .24 Annals of Sargon II. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .22 The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). (n.d.). DOKUMEN.PUB.
• .61 Sargon II. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .62 Letters of the royal correspondence. (n.d.). State Archives of Assyria Online.
• .63 Parpola, S. (1987). The Correspondence of Sargon II, Part I: Letters from Assyria and the West. Eisenbrauns.
• .64 Sargon II. (2021). The royal inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721-705 BC) (G. Frame, Ed.). Eisenbrauns.
• .65 The royal inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721-705 BC). (n.d.). Index Theologicus.
• .66 Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period. (n.d.). Eisenbrauns.
• .67 The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). (n.d.). AbeBooks.
• .68 Novotny, J., Lentini, G., & Morello, N. (2022). The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II. An At-A-Glance Akkadian Dictionary of the RINAP 2 Corpus. State Archives of Assyria Bulletin, 28, 53-119.
• .69 The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721-705 Bc) by Grant Frame. (n.d.). eBay.
• .15 Traders of the Mountains. (n.d.). Penn Museum Expedition Magazine.
• .16 Review of Peoples of the Zagros. (2018). Bryn Mawr Classical Review.
• .70 Zagros Mountains. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .71 Zagros Mountains. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica.
• .72 If Iran's Zagros mountains are such a formidable barrier... (n.d.). Reddit.
• .73 Zagros Mountains. (n.d.). IranAmaze.
• .20 The Medes, purveyors of fine horses. (n.d.). Sargon II, King of Assyria. University College London.
• .19 The Medes, purveyors of fine horses. (n.d.). State Archives of Assyria Online.
• .74 Neo-Assyrian Empire. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .75 A short summary of the beginning of the Medes. (n.d.). Reddit.
• .17 Medes. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .76 Medes, the Ancient People Who Took Down the Assyrian Empire. (n.d.). The Collector.
• .12 Ecbatana (Hamadan). (n.d.). Livius.org.
• .10 Ecbatana. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .77 Ecbatana in Hamedan, Iran. (n.d.). Iran Doostan Tours.
• .11 Hamedan (Ekbatana). (n.d.). WMU HIST 3495: Ancient Near Eastern History.
• .31 Degen, J. (n.d.). Planets, Palaces and Empire. Herodotus on Deioces and Ecbatana (Hdt. 1.98–99).
• .34 In Search of the Ecbatana: Critical Considerations on the Historiography of the Medes. (n.d.). Ancient Iranian Studies.
• .78 Hegmataneh (Ecbatana) Listed As A UNESCO World Heritage Site. (n.d.). Surfiran.
• .79 The Colors of Ecbatana. (2025, January 20). Co-Geeking.
• .80 How reliable is the royal archive “found at Ecbatana” (Ezra 6:1-2)... (n.d.). Bible Hub.
• .33 Ecbatana (Achmetha). (n.d.). In Encyclopedia of The Bible. Bible Gateway.
• .32 ECBATANA. (1997, December 15). In Encyclopædia Iranica.
• .81 Median kingdom. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .35 ARCHEOLOGY ii. Median and Achaemenid. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Iranica.
• .17 Medes. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .82 Farrokh, K. (n.d.). The Median Empire: The First Iranian Dynastic Empire.
• .83 Zagros. Parsua. Early Persian & Median History. (n.d.). Heritage Institute.
• .84 The central and northern Zagros during the Late Chalcolithic... (n.d.). Paléorient.
• .46 Sargon II Inscription. (n.d.). Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .23 Sargon II: An Archaeological Biography. (2024, February 22). The Bible Archaeology Report.
• .22 The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). (n.d.). DOKUMEN.PUB.
• .85 Luckenbill, D. D. (1927). Ancient Records Of Assyria And Babylonia Vol. 2.
• .86 Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Volume 2: Historical Records of Assyria From Sargon to the End. (n.d.). Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures.
• .45 Mesopotamian King Sargon II envisioned ancient city Karkemish as western Assyrian capital. (2019, April 19). Ancient Origins.
• .44 Frame, G. (n.d.). A “NEW” CYLINDER INSCRIPTION OF SARGON II OF ASSYRIA FROM MELID. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .87 The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721-705 Bc) by Grant Frame. (n.d.). eBay.
• .67 The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). (n.d.). AbeBooks.
• .21 Frame, G. (2021). The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). Eisenbrauns.
• .88 The Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period. (n.d.). The Ancient World Online.
• .66 Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period. (n.d.). Eisenbrauns.
• .89 Prehistoric Archeology Along the Zagros Flanks. (n.d.). Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures.
• .35 ARCHEOLOGY ii. Median and Achaemenid. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Iranica.
• .90 The Central Zagros as the Eastern Mountain of Mesopotamia... (n.d.). Hunara.
• .70 Zagros Mountains. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .91 Zagros Mousterian in the Zagros, Caucasus, and Armenian Highlands. (n.d.). European Journal of Archaeology.
• .92 The Origins of Nomadic Pastoralism in the West Central Zagros Mountains. (n.d.).
• .26 Phraortes. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica.
• .27 Medvedskaya, I. (2004, July 20). PHRAORTES. In Encyclopædia Iranica.
• .93 Phraortes. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .94 The second king of the Median Empire, Phraortes. (n.d.). Quora.
• .8 Deioces. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .7 Persians and Medes: Herodotos (mid-fifth century BCE). (2022, September). PhilipHarland.com.
• .29 Median dynasty. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .17 Medes. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .14 Media. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica.
• .95 Chronology of the Medes... (n.d.). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
• .96 The Annals of Sargon II, c. 722 BCE. (n.d.). Center for Online Judaic Studies.
• .46 Sargon II Inscription. (n.d.). Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .61 Sargon II. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .23 Sargon II: An Archaeological Biography. (2024, February 22). The Bible Archaeology Report.
• .22 The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). (n.d.). DOKUMEN.PUB.
• .21 Frame, G. (2021). The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). Eisenbrauns.
• .97 Sargon's Eighth Campaign. (n.d.). Journal of Near Eastern Studies.
• .98 The Eighth Campaign of Sargon II. (n.d.). Neatline.
• .99 Sargon (II), The Great Display Inscription of the Palace of Khorsabad. (n.d.). Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period Online.
• .100 Sargon's March. (n.d.). Penn Museum Expedition Magazine.
• .101 Sargon's March: A New Translation. (n.d.). Penn Museum Expedition Magazine.
• .102 Jakubiak, K. (n.d.). Some remarks on Sargon II's eighth campaign of 714 BC.
• .103 Luckenbill, D. D. (1927). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia: Volume 2. University of Chicago Press.
• .86 Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Volume 2: Historical Records of Assyria From Sargon to the End. (n.d.). Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures.
• .104 Luckenbill, D. D. (1927). Ancient Records Of Assyria And Babylonia Vol. 2. Internet Archive.
• .105 Luckenbill, D. D. (1927). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, Volume 2. University of Chicago Press.
• .106 Luckenbill, D. D. (1926-27). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia. 2 Vols. University of Chicago Press.
• .107 Luckenbill, D. D. (1926-27). ANCIENT RECORDS OF ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA 2 VOLS. Panoply Books.
• .108 Brick with inscription of Sargon II. (n.d.). Vatican Museums.
• .109 The Inscription of Sargon. (n.d.). TOTA World.
• .24 Annals of Sargon II. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .110 The Cylinder Inscription of Sargon II. (n.d.). The Israel Museum, Jerusalem.
• .111 Cuneiform Inscription recovered from the Inner Court of Sargon II`s Palace at Khorsabad. (n.d.). Reddit.
• .36 Luckenbill, D. D. (Ed.). (1926). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, Volume 1: Historical Records of Assyria From the Earliest Times to Sargon. University of Chicago Press.
• .8 Deioces. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .5 Herodotus. (n.d.). The Histories, Book I. Project Gutenberg.
• .36 Luckenbill, D. D. (Ed.). (1926). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, Volume 1: Historical Records of Assyria From the Earliest Times to Sargon. University of Chicago Press.
• .6 Encyclopædia Iranica and other sources on the archaeology of Ecbatana.
• .24 Annals of Sargon II. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from the provided research material.
• .20 The Medes, purveyors of fine horses. (2013, February 11). Sargon II, King of Assyria. University College London.
• .12 Ecbatana (Hamadan). (n.d.). Livius.org.
• .32 ECBATANA. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Iranica.
• .112 Medvedskaya, I. (2012, December 13). PHRAORTES. In Encyclopædia Iranica. Works cited
• ​ Histories (Herodotus) - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)
• ​ Herodotus: Histories Book I | Cambridge University Press & Assessment, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.cambridge.org/9780521871730
• ​ The Histories by Herodotus: 9780143107545 | PenguinRandomHouse.com: Books, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/300614/the-histories-by-herodot us-translated-by-tom-holland-introduction-and-notes-by-paul-cartledge/
• ​ 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Deioces - Wikisource, the free online library, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Deioces
• ​ The History of Herodotus | Project Gutenberg, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2707/2707-h/2707-h.htm
• ​ DEIOCES - Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/deioces/
• ​ Persians and Medes: Herodotos on customs (mid-fifth century BCE) | Ethnic Relations and Migration in the Ancient World: The Websites of Philip A. Harland, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.philipharland.com/Blog/2022/09/persians-and-medes-herodotos-mi d-fifth-century-bce/
• ​ Deioces - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deioces
• ​ Deioces | Persian Ruler, Founder of Media - Britannica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Deioces
• ​Ecbatana - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecbatana
• ​Hamedan (Ekbatana) – WMU HIST 3495: Ancient Near Eastern History - WordPress.com, accessed August 31, 2025, https://wmuanehistory.wordpress.com/hamedan-ekbatana/
• ​Ecbatana (Hamadan) - Livius, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.livius.org/articles/place/ecbatana-hamadan/
• ​[HIS HER] herodotus vol. i.pdf, accessed August 31, 2025, https://kyl.neocities.org/books/[HIS%20HER]%20herodotus%20vol.%20i.pdf
• ​Media | Ancient Region, Persian History & Culture | Britannica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Media-ancient-region-Iran
• ​Expedition Magazine | Traders of the Mountains - Penn Museum, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/traders-of-the-mountians/
• ​The Mountain Peoples in the Ancient Near East. The Case of the Zagros in the First Millennium BCE. Classica et Orientalia 18, accessed August 31, 2025, https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2018/2018.09.31/
• ​Medes - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medes
• ​Medes | Encyclopedia.com, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and -maps/medes
• ​Assyrian Empire Builders - The Medes, purveyors of fine horses - Oracc, accessed August 31, 2025, https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/saao/aebp/essentials/countries/themedes/
• ​Assyrian empire builders - The Medes, purveyors of fine horses - UCL, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/medes/
• ​The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC) By Grant Frame, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/titles/978-1-64602-109-3.html
• ​The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC) 9781646021499, accessed August 31, 2025, https://dokumen.pub/the-royal-inscriptions-of-sargon-ii-king-of-assyria-721705- bc-9781646021499.html
• ​Sargon II: An Archaeological Biography, accessed August 31, 2025, https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2024/02/22/sargon-ii-an-archaeological-biog raphy/
• ​Annals of Sargon II - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Sargon_II
• ​Δηϊόκης - Wiktionary, the free dictionary, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B7%CF%8A%CF%8C%CE%BA%CE %B7%CF%82
• ​Phraortes | Persian Ruler, Median Empire, Achaemenid Dynasty | Britannica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Phraortes
• ​PHRAORTES - Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/phraortes/
• ​Deioces : Meaning and Origin of First Name | Search Family History on Ancestry®., accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.ancestry.com/first-name-meaning/deioces
• ​Median dynasty - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_dynasty
• ​Deioces and the Ideal King in the Zoroastrian Religion, accessed August 31, 2025, https://jis.uk.ac.ir/article_4596.html?lang=en
• ​Planets, Palaces and Empire. Herodotus on Deioces and Ecbatana (Hdt. 1.98–99), accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.austriaca.at/0xc1aa5576_0x003d6820.pdf
• ​ECBATANA - Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ecbatana/
• ​Ecbatana (Achmetha) - Encyclopedia of The Bible - Bible Gateway, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.biblegateway.com/resources/encyclopedia-of-the-bible/Ecbatana-A chmetha
• ​In Search of the Ecbatana: Critical Considerations on the Historiography of the Medes - Ancient Iranian Studies, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.ancientiranianstudies.ir/article_178613_en.html
• ​ARCHEOLOGY ii. Median and Achaemenid - Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/archeology-ii/
• ​ancient records of Assyria and Babylonia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/ancient_records_ assyria1.pdf
• ​2 Forerunners of the Achaemenids: The First Half of the First, accessed August 31, 2025, https://resolve.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/D 81DCF90429D44249A051B020926D996/9780511841880c2_p19-34_CBO.pdf/fore runners_of_the_achaemenids_the_first_half_of_the_first_millennium_bce.pdf
• ​Timeline: Medes - World History Encyclopedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.worldhistory.org/timeline/Medes/
• ​Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Volume 1: Historical Records of Assyria From the Earliest Times to Sargon | Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, accessed August 31, 2025, https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/misc/ancient-records-assyria-an d-babylonia-volume-1-historical-records-assyria
• ​Deiokes or Deioces of Medea - Amazing Bible Timeline, accessed August 31, 2025, https://amazingbibletimeline.com/blog/deiokes-medes/
• ​Deioces: Name Meaning, Popularity and Info on BabyNames.com, accessed August 31, 2025, https://babynames.com/name/Deioces
• ​How to Pronounce Deioces - YouTube, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fW3R6ibApH4
• ​LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book I: Chapters 1‑44, accessed August 31, 2025, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/1a*.html
• ​A “NEW” CYLINDER INSCRIPTION OF SARGON II OF ASSYRIA FROM MELID - Journal.fi, accessed August 31, 2025, https://journal.fi/store/article/view/52451/16262
• ​Ancient Inscription Details Conquest of Assyrian King Sargon II, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/karkemish-0011856
• ​Sargon II Inscription, accessed August 31, 2025, https://people.bethel.edu/~pferris/historical/hidden/HistSynopsisLinks/sargoninscr iption.htm
• ​Encyclopædia Iranica - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica
• ​Encyclopaedia Iranica - National Endowment for the Humanities, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.neh.gov/explore/encyclopaedia-iranica
• ​Encyclopaedia Iranica - Columbia University, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.columbia.edu/cu/center-for-iranian-studies/programs-and-pubs/mai n/projects/eir.html
• ​About - Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.iranicaonline.org/about/
• ​IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times - Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii1-pre-islamic-times/
• ​Decius - Livius.org, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.livius.org/articles/person/decius/
• ​Decius - Livius.org, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.livius.org/pictures/a/roman-emperors/decius/
• ​Deiokes - ToposText, accessed August 31, 2025, https://topostext.org/people/1883
• ​Livius.org, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.livius.org/
• ​Alexander's successors: the Diadochi - Livius.org, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/diadochi/
• ​Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran
• ​The Catholic diocese of Lafayette and desegregation, 1947-1972, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/the-catholic-diocese-of-lafayette- and-desegregation-1947-1972
• ​(The Catholic Historical Review 1959-Oct Vol. 45 Iss. 3) Henry G. J., accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.scribd.com/document/765773087/The-Catholic-Historical-Review-19 59-oct-vol-45-iss-3-Henry-G-J-Beck-The-Selection-of-Bishops-Suffragan-to-Hi ncmar-of-Rheims-845-882-1959
• ​Encyclopedia Iranica: A free online encyclopedia investigating almost every aspect of Iranian civilization (I have spent untold hours on here) : r/history - Reddit, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/history/comments/kzrvj/encyclopedia_iranica_a_free_on line_encyclopedia/
• ​Sargon II - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargon_II
• ​Assyrian Empire Builders - Letters of the royal correspondence - Oracc, accessed August 31, 2025, https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/saao/aebp/Royalcorrespondence/index.html
• ​The Correspondence of Sargon II, Part I: Letters from Assyria and the West By Simo Parpola, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/titles/978-1-57506-383-6.html
• ​The royal inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721-705 BC) - Catalog - UW-Madison Libraries, accessed August 31, 2025, https://search.library.wisc.edu/catalog/9913289931302121
• ​Description: The royal inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721-705 BC) - IxTheo, accessed August 31, 2025, https://ixtheo.de/Record/1742395538
• ​Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period - Eisenbrauns, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/series/book_SeriesRoyalInscriptionsofNeo.ht ml
• ​The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC) (Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period) - Frame, Grant: 9781646021093 - AbeBooks, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.abebooks.com/9781646021093/Royal-Inscriptions-Sargon-King-Ass yria-1646021096/plp
• ​The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, accessed August 31, 2025, https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/94878/
• ​The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721-705 Bc) by Grant Frame - eBay, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.ebay.com/itm/284303032361
• ​Zagros Mountains - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagros_Mountains
• ​Zagros Mountains | Iran, Farsi, Plateau - Britannica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Zagros-Mountains
• ​If Iran's Zagros Mountains are such a formidable barrier. Why was it frequently invaded and conquered? - Reddit, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/50wzpj/if_irans_zagros_mount ains_are_such_a_formidable/
• ​The Splendor of Iran's Zagros Mountains: A Complete Guide - IranAmaze, accessed August 31, 2025, https://iranamaze.com/zagros/
• ​Neo-Assyrian Empire - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire
• ​A short Summary of the Beginning of the Medes, know your history! : r/kurdistan - Reddit, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/kurdistan/comments/19arfkv/a_short_summary_of_the_ beginning_of_the_medes/
• ​Medes, the Ancient People Who Took Down the Assyrian Empire - TheCollector, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.thecollector.com/ancient-medes-origins-history/
• ​Ecbatana in Hamedan, Iran (Ruins, History, Map, Photos), accessed August 31, 2025, https://irandoostan.com/ecbatana-in-hamedan-iran/
• ​Hegmataneh (Ecbatana) Listed As A UNESCO World Heritage Site - Surfiran, accessed August 31, 2025, https://surfiran.com/mag/hegmataneh-listed-unesco/
• ​The Colors of Ecbatana - Co-Geeking, accessed August 31, 2025, https://co-geeking.com/2025/01/20/the-colors-of-ecbatana/
• ​How reliable is the royal archive “found at Ecbatana” (Ezra 6:1-2) when no clear archaeological record of such a discovery exists? - Bible Hub, accessed August 31, 2025, https://biblehub.com/q/is_ecbatana's_royal_archive_reliable.htm
• ​Median kingdom - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_kingdom
• ​The Median Empire: The First Iranian Dynastic Empire - Dr. Kaveh Farrokh, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.kavehfarrokh.com/ancient-prehistory-651-a-d/achaemenids/the-me dian-empire-the-first-iranian-dynastic-empire/
• ​Zagros. Parsua. Early Persian & Median History - Heritage Institute, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/zagros/index.htm
• ​The central and northern Zagros during the Late Chalcolithic: An updated ceramic chronology based on recent fieldwork results in western Iran - OpenEdition Journals, accessed August 31, 2025, https://journals.openedition.org/paleorient/366?lang=en
• ​Ancient Records Of Assyria And Babylonia Vol.1, accessed August 31, 2025, https://ia601409.us.archive.org/25/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.532619/2015.532619.anci ent-records_text.pdf
• ​Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Volume 2: Historical Records of Assyria From Sargon to the End | Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, accessed August 31, 2025, https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/misc/ancient-records-assyria-an d-babylonia-volume-2-historical-records-assyria
• ​The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721-705 Bc) by Grant Frame - eBay, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.ebay.com/itm/364271496062
• ​AWOL Index: The Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period, accessed August 31, 2025, https://isaw.nyu.edu/publications/awol-index/html/oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap .html
• ​Prehistoric Archeology Along the Zagros Flanks | Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, accessed August 31, 2025, https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/oip/prehistoric-archeology-along -zagros-flanks
• ​Eastern Mountains: Central Zagros Perspective on the Akkadian Glyptics - Hunara: Journal of Ancient Iranian Arts and History, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.hunara.org/article_176271_40b389d6ebfaaf5c4e48b7be3b0485c9.p df
• ​The Zagros Mousterian in the Zagros, Caucasus, and Armenian Highlands | European Journal of Archaeology | Cambridge Core, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-journal-of-archaeology/articl e/zagros-mousterian-in-the-zagros-caucasus-and-armenian-highlands/48F2309 20C64CA697CDF7C8E63E9C512
• ​The Early Development of Pastoralism in the Central Zagros Mountains, accessed August 31, 2025, https://archaeology.pku.edu.cn/__local/B/59/9B/43D975355D4A3E27D2873D9E196 _B4792283_1872B4.pdf
• ​Phraortes - Wikipedia, accessed August 31, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phraortes
• ​The second king of the Median Empire, Phraortes. Phraortes son of Deioces, was the second king of the Median Empire. Like his father Deioces, Phraortes started wars against Assyria, but was defeated and killed by Ashurbanipal, the king of the Neo-A, accessed August 31, 2025, https://balochistanhistory.quora.com/The-second-king-of-the-Median-Empire-P hraortes-Phraortes-son-of-Deioces-was-the-second-king-of-the-Median-Empir e-L
• ​Art. II.—Chronology of the Medes, from the Reign of Deioces to the Reign of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, or Darius the Mede | Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society - Cambridge University Press, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/arti cle/art-iichronology-of-the-medes-from-the-reign-of-deioces-to-the-reign-of- darius-the-son-of-hystaspes-or-darius-the-mede/91D77EAA2ACC0F10265809 C3A199D994
• ​The Annals of Sargon II, c. 722 BCE | Center for Online Judaic Studies, accessed August 31, 2025, https://cojs.org/the_annals_of_sargon_ii-_c-_722_bce/
• ​The Eighth Campaign of Sargon II of Assyria (714 B. C.), accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/370673
• ​The Eighth Campaign of Sargon II - HIST 1039, accessed August 31, 2025, https://hist1039-16.omeka.fas.harvard.edu/neatline/fullscreen/the-eighth-campai gn-of-sargon-ii
• ​rinap - Sargon II 001 - Oracc, accessed August 31, 2025, https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/Q006482
• ​ SARGON'S MARCH: A NEW TRANSLATION - Penn Museum, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/56-3/sargons-mar ch.pdf
• ​ Expedition Magazine | Sargon's March: A New Translation - Penn Museum, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/sargons-march-a-new-translation/
• ​ SOME REMARKS ON SARGON II's EIGHTH CAMPAIGN OF 714 BC. - ResearchGate, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Krzysztof-Jakubiak/publication/250134176_ Some_remarks_on_Sargon_II's_eighth_campaign_of_714_BC/links/5aded1cbaca2 72fdaf890da4/Some-remarks-on-Sargon-IIs-eighth-campaign-of-714-BC.pdf
• ​ Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia: Volume 2 by Daniel David Luckenbill - Books on Google Play, accessed August 31, 2025, https://play.google.com/store/books/details/Daniel_David_Luckenbill_Ancient_Rec ords_of_Assyria?id=YsETAAAAQAAJ
• ​ Ancient Records Of Assyria And Babylonia Vol.2 : Luckenbill, Deniel David - Internet Archive, accessed August 31, 2025, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532630
• ​ Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia - Daniel David Luckenbill - Google Books, accessed August 31, 2025, https://books.google.com/books/about/Ancient_Records_of_Assyria_and_Babylo nia.html?id=YsETAAAAQAAJ
• ​ Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia. 2 Vols. - AbeBooks, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.abebooks.com/Ancient-Records-Assyria-Babylonia-2-Vols/318135131 86/bd
• ​ ANCIENT RECORDS OF ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA 2 VOLS., by Daniel David Luckenbill - 1926 [1st Ed., DJ] | Panoply Books, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.panoplybooks.com/ancient-records-of-assyria-and-babylonia-2-vol s-by-daniel-david-luckenbill-1926-1st-ed-dj/
• ​ Brick with inscription of Sargon II - Vatican Museums, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/museo-gr egoriano-egizio/sala-ix--rilievi-e-iscrizioni-dei-palazzi-assiri/mattone-con-iscrizio ne-di-sargon-ii.html
• ​ The Inscription of Sargon - TOTA, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.tota.world/article/291/
• ​ The Cylinder Inscription of Sargon II, accessed August 31, 2025, https://museum.imj.org.il/journal/archive/2018-2019/pdf/cylinder.pdf
• ​ Cuneiform Inscription recovered from the Inner Court of Sargon II`s Palace at Khorsabad. Sargon II was king of the Neo Assyrian Empire from 721 to 705 B.C.. Cuneiform was invented by the Sumerians in the late fourth millennium BC. The name means "wedge shaped"... [1920x1280] [OC] - Reddit, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/AncientCivilizations/comments/1f0uji1/cuneiform_inscri ption_recovered_from_the_inner/
• ​ PHRAORTES - Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed August 31, 2025, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/phraortes

Created on: August 31, 2025