The sources offer an extensive examination of the Mamluk Sultanate, a unique Islamic empire that existed from 1250 to 1517, founded and ruled by a class of enslaved soldiers. They explore the paradoxical origins of the Mamluks, highlighting their rigorous training in *furusiyya* and their rise to power following the Battle of Ain Jalut against the Mongols and the expulsion of the Crusaders. The texts further discuss the two main Mamluk dynasties—the Turkic Bahri and the Circassian Burji—and their distinct characteristics, including the Bahri period's stability and the Burji era's political instability and economic decline due to the Black Death and shifting trade routes. Finally, the sources detail the Mamluk state's unique non-hereditary political structure, its powerful military, thriving economy based on the spice trade, magnificent cultural achievements in art and architecture, and ultimate fall to the Ottoman Empire due to a failure to adopt gunpowder technology.
The Art of the Mamluk Period (1250–1517) - The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/the-art-of-the-mamluk-period-1250-1517
المنهج التربوي للمماليك وأثره االستراتيجي على العالم اإلسالمي - رواحل, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.rawahel.org/articles/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D 8%AC-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A-%D9%84 %D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83-%D9%88%D8%A 3%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%87-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8 %B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89- %D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8% A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A-209
The Mamluk Sultanate for Unit 1 of AP World History - Productive Teacher, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.theproductiveteacher.com/the-mamluk-sultanate-for-unit-1-of-ap- world-history
en.wikipedia.org, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut
Battle of Ain Jalut (1260) | Description & Significance | Britannica, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Ayn-Jalut
عين ..جالوت. .معرك أحي دول الممالي وكسر شوك المغو |الموسوع ..., accessed August 29 , 2025 https://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/2023/4/8/%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%86-%D 8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83% D8%A9-%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%AA-%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8% A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83
Mamluk Dynasties in Egypt - Epic World History, accessed August 29, 2025, http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/mamluk-dynasties-in-egypt.html
تاريخ مصر في عهد المماليك - ويكيبيديا, accessed August 29, 2025, https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9% 85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D9%87%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D 9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83
المماليك ودورهم في تصفية الشرق من الصليبين ( 648 - 923هــ1250 - 1517م) | ASJP, accessed August 29, 2025, https://asjp.cerist.dz/en/article/234768
Who Were the Mamluks? | History Today, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.historytoday.com/miscellanies/who-were-mamluks
Mamluks: The Incredible Islamic Slave-Warriors of Egypt, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.realmofhistory.com/2022/06/23/mamluks-slave-warriors-history/
Mamluk - Wikipedia, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk
Ghilman - Wikipedia, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghilman
Bahri dynasty Facts for Kids, accessed August 29, 2025, https://kids.kiddle.co/Bahri_dynasty
Mamluk dynasty | British Museum, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/x23175
دولة المماليك كاملة من البداية للنهاية ⚔️ دولة تأسست وانتهت بجريمة قتل | عدو أوروبا اللدود, accessed August 29, 2025, https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=90bkNIPwlOA&pp=ygUNI9mF2YTZg9i02KfZhw% 3D%3D
Burji Mamluks - Brown University, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/afterpharaohs 2010/13947.html
من هم المماليك ومن أين جاؤوا - موضوع, accessed August 29, 2025, https://mawdoo3.com/%D9%85%D9%86_%D9%87%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84% D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83_%D9%88%D9%85%D9%86 _%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A4%D9%88%D8%A7
دولة المماليك الجراكسة )البرجية( )إ -كتش الآثار لمصري -وزارة اليساحة , acces sed Au https://egymonuments.gov.eg/ar/historical-periods/circassian-mamluks-burji/
Mamluks, Property Rights, and Economic Development: Lessons from Medieval Egypt - Lisa Blaydes, accessed August 29, 2025, https://blaydes.people.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj24621/files/media/file/land1. pdf
أصول ..المماليك. .ه كانو عنصر وطني أ كيان احلتالي لمص والشام |تاري -الجزير ن, accesse d August 29, 2025 https://www.aljazeera.net/history/2020/2/25/%D8%A3%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%84- %D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83
دولة المماليك في مصر.pdf, accessed August 29, 2025, https://dspace.univ-guelma.dz/jspui/bitstream/123456789/923/1/%D8%AF%D9%8 8%D9%84%D8%A9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84% D9%8A%D9%83%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1.pdf
األسباب االقتصادية لسقوط دولة المماليك – إضاءات, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.ida2at.com/economic-reasons-fall-mamluk-state/
History of the Mamluk Sultanate - Wikipedia, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Mamluk_Sultanate
من العصر األيوبي إلى ..المماليك. .التاري السياس لحكا مص -بواب أخبا اليو, accessed August 29 , 2025 https://m.akhbarelyom.com/news/newdetails/4488849/1/%D9%85%D9%86-%D8 %A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A% D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8 5%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8 %A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%A7%D9%84
دولة المماليك البحرية - إكتشف اآلثار المصرية - وزارة السياحة واآلثار, accessed August 29, 2025, https://egymonuments.gov.eg/ar/historical-periods/mamluk-dynasty-bahri/
المماليك | الدحيح - YouTube, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXcg79ZcQc4
Life in the Mamluk Sultanate - Ottoman History Podcast, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.ottomanhistorypodcast.com/2020/11/life-in-mamluk-sultanate.html
المماليك البحرية - ويكيبيديا, accessed August 29, 2025, https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8 4%D9%8A%D9%83_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8 %A9
أين وقعت معركة عين جالوت - موضوع, accessed August 29, 2025, https://mawdoo3.com/%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9%D 8%AA_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%86_ %D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA
History of Mamluks - Timeline - Historydraft, accessed August 29, 2025, https://historydraft.com/story/mamluks/timeline/806
معركة عين جالوت - ويكيبيديا, accessed August 29, 2025, https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%B 9%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA
النتائج السياسية لوالية االستيالء في دولة المماليك (هـ( 78 4 / 6 48 ..., accessed August 29, 2025 https://iasj.rdd.edu.iq/journals/uploads/2025/06/03/69ccc32871b377e5ffdbde692b
pdf
سلطنة المماليك - المعرفة, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.marefa.org/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7% D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83
The Struggle for Power within the Mamluk Sultanate - Medievalists.net, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.medievalists.net/2020/08/power-struggles-mamluk/
Mamluk architecture - Wikipedia, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_architecture
تاريخ دولة المماليك : صعود المماليك و مرحلة المماليك البحرية - YouTube, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CruDsyX0Tu4
دولة المماليك كاملة من البداية للنهاية ⚔️ دولة تأسست وانتهت بجريمة قتل | عدو أوروبا اللدود, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90bkNIPwlOA
shs.cairn.info, accessed August 29, 2025, https://shs.cairn.info/revue-annales-de-demographie-historique-2017-2-page-63 ?lang=fr#:~:text=The%20resulting%20reported%20recurrence%20of,%2C%20on e%20per%204.12%20years).
Black Death in the Middle East - Wikipedia, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death_in_the_Middle_East
The Black Death in the Middle East and Central Asia - Islamic Law Blog, accessed August 29, 2025, https://islamiclaw.blog/2020/05/29/stuart-borsch/
en.wikipedia.org, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate#:~:text=One%20such%20emir%2 C%20Barquq%2C%20overthrew,long%20period%20of%20financial%20distress.
أسباب سقوط دولة المماليك - موسوعة كيوبيديا العالمية, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.qpedia.org/topics/10616.html?language=arabic
The Socio-Political Role of the Ulama in Egypt – Islamic Literary ..., accessed August 29, 2025, https://islamicliterarysociety.com/2020/12/2365/
The Mamluk Sultanate: A Deeper Dive - Number Analytics, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/mamluk-sultanate-politics-society-econ omy
The Mamluk Military: A Professional Medieval Army - Medievalists.net, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.medievalists.net/2020/05/mamluk-military-professional-medieval-ar my/
Full text of "النظام العسكري في دولة المماليك ( 648 - 923ه / 1250 - 1517م )", accessed August 29, 2025, https://archive.org/stream/library-elhamma-6262022/Library%20Elhamma_62620 22_djvu.txt
Military of the Mamluk Sultanate - Wikipedia, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Mamluk_Sultanate
Cavalry tactics - Wikipedia, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry_tactics
www.numberanalytics.com, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/mamluk-sultanate-politics-society-econ omy#:~:text=Social%20Hierarchies%20and%20Patronage%20Networks,the%20 Caucasus%20and%20other%20regions.
Symbiotic Relations: Ulama and the Mamluk Sultans (MSR XIII.1 ..., accessed August 29, 2025, https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/1159/files/MSR_XIII-1_2009-Lev_pp1-26.p df
دور العلماء يف مصر خالل العصر - الجامعة المستنصرية, accessed August 29, 2025, https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/media/library/dissertations/1861.pdf
دور العلماء في المعارضة السياسية في مصر في عصر دولة المماليك األولى ( 648 - 784 ه / 1250 , accessed August 29, 2025, https://journals.ekb.eg/article_296101.html
The Mamluk Sultanate from a Global Perspective (Chapter 3) - The ..., accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/mamluk-sultanate/mamluk-sultanate-fro m-a-global-perspective/326DE7820ED1D27C20AD166816F73B02
Mamluk Sultanate: A Historical Perspective - Number Analytics, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/mamluk-sultanate-historical-perspective
السلع التجارية في األسواق المصرية في دولة المماليك البحرية ( ٨٤٦, accessed August 29, 2025, https://archives.ju.edu.jo/index.php/jjha/article/download/3262/2830/6420
The Spice Trade in Mamluk Egypt: A Contribution to the Economic History of Medieval Islam Author(s): Walter J. Fischel Source, accessed August 29, 2025, https://medpopculture.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/140/2018/01 /fischel_spice-trade-in-mamluk-egypt.pdf
طرق التجارة ومسالكها بالمشرق اإلسالمي وأهميتها في حركة التجارة العال, accessed August 29, 2025, https://asjp.cerist.dz/en/downArticle/634/3/2/161963
Venice and the Mamluks | The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.metmuseum.org/learn/educators/curriculum-resources/art-of-the-isl amic-world/unit-seven/chapter-two/venice-and-the-mamluks
Mamluk Architectural and Artistic Trends - Google Arts & Culture, accessed August 29, 2025, https://artsandculture.google.com/story/mamluk-architectural-and-artistic-trend s-american-research-center-in-egypt/LAWhg2VFPHFybQ?hl=en
Overview of Islamic Art and Architecture: The Mamluk Period (1250 – 1517), accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.internationaljournalssrg.org/IJHSS/2020/Volume7-Issue3/IJHSS-V7I3 P104.pdf
العمارة المملوكية بين القاهرة سمات..وحلب.و - ال, accessed August https://raha-ac.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8% A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%D9%8A%D8 %A9-%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%87% D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A8-%D8%B3%D9%85/
Art Minute: Mamluk Sultanate, "Footed Bowl with Lid" | Toledo Museum of Art, accessed August 29, 2025, https://toledomuseum.org/collection/art-minute/art-minute-mamluk-sultanate-fo oted-bowl-with-lid
تاريخ الفن االسالمي في العصر المملوكي – مكتبة دار الزمان للنشر ..., accessed August 29, 2025, https://daralzaman.sa/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%A7%D 9%84%D9%81%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7% D9%85%D9%8A-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1 -%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%D9%8A/
بحث عن االسلحه المملوكيه - Civilization Lovers, accessed August 29, 2025, https://civilizationlovers.wordpress.com/2012/07/10/%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%AB- %D8%B9%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%AD%D9% 87-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%D9%8A%D9 %87/
'Ali ibn Muhammad al-Barmaki | Mosque Lamp of Amir Qawsun | The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/447006
A Gift of Light: Glass Lamps and Their Illumination of the Mamluk State, accessed August 29, 2025, https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/193928
The Black Death and the Rise of the Ottomans (Chapter 1) - Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire - Cambridge University Press & Assessment, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire /black-death-and-the-rise-of-the-ottomans/D83E412C0BB3C092E79683722AFF FC33
قصة مصر مع وباء الطاعون ،األسود أكثر من ٠٠٦ سنة - YouTube, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QOeZ7qxvcDw
الموت ..األسود. .ماذ رأ اب بطوط ف الطاعو العظيم وكي نج من ..., accessed August 29, 2025 https://www.aljazeera.net/history/2021/7/31/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88% D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%A 7%D8%B0%D8%A7-%D8%B1%D8%A3%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8 %A8%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B7%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A
أسباب هزيمة المماليك في مصر والشام (٢) - DML, accessed August 29, 2025, http://www.dml.nelc.edu.eg/sites/default/files/lo/lo_4299_892/sources/page2-10.ht ml
What led to the collapse of the Mamluk sultanate in 1517? : r/AskHistorians - Reddit, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/p4y43o/what_led_to_the_colla pse_of_the_mamluk_sultanate/
Janissary - Wikipedia, accessed August 29, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissary
Origin and Recruitment of the Janissaries | Ludwig H. Dyck's Historical Writings, accessed August 29, 2025, https://ludwigheinrichdyck.wordpress.com/2017/11/04/origin-and-recruitment-of- the-janissaries/
The Digital Library : Social Studies : The Middle East : The Ottoman Empire - eCUIP, accessed August 29, 2025, https://ecuip.lib.uchicago.edu/diglib/social/mideast/encyclopedia/mideast_sec04_ safavid_01.html
Devshirme: The Ottoman Empire's Complex Recruitment - Number Analytics, accessed August 29, 2025, https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/devshirme-ultimate-guide
الغلمان األشراف - ويكيبيديا, accessed August 29, 2025, https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A 7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81